Introduction: The Far-Right Surge
Last month, the far-right Freedom Party won its first Austrian parliamentary elections since World War II. In September, the German far-right party Alternative for Deutschland (AfD) also made significant gains, securing second place in the eastern state of Brandenburg with 29.2% of the vote. This result follows the party’s substantial win in Thuringia and its second-place finish in Saxony earlier in the month. These recent electoral successes illustrate the broader rise of far-right groups across the European Union (EU).
In many EU countries, radical right parties have been increasing their support, with some now in government, forming part of governing coalitions, or making strong electoral gains. In the recent EU parliamentary elections, far-right parties emerged victorious in Italy, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Netherlands and made significant gains in France, Germany, and Poland. Although their surge was not as large as initially anticipated, it still signals the continued growth of these groups.
The rise of these political forces, transitioning from the fringes of EU politics to the centre, marks a pivotal moment in European history and poses significant risks and challenges to the union. These groups’ values often stand in stark opposition to the EU’s foundational principles, raising important questions about the ideology of far-right parties and the factors driving their rise.
Far-Right Spectrum
Scholars use various terms to describe far-right parties, such as the radical right, extreme right, populist right, national conservatives, nationalist-nativists, Eurosceptics, etc. These terms designate groups whose ideological and political views diverge from the dominant perspectives within the EU. Often grouped under the label “far-right,” these parties typically oppose the norms and practices of liberal democracy, criticise core European values, and often use hostile rhetoric. They call for more control over borders, economies, and legal systems by national governments.
Conservative parties advocate for traditional values in politics, culture, and society, emphasising family structures, gender roles, and patriotism. Nativism, sometimes referred to as neo-nationalism, prioritises the interests of native inhabitants, aiming to protect the local population’s (citizens’) economic, political, and social well-being, often at the expense of immigrants. Eurosceptics are those who oppose the EU and its policies, arguing that the EU undermines national sovereignty through bureaucratic regulations that conflict with the interests of member states.
The radical and extreme right are overlapping ideologies but differ in their approach to democratic rule. While the radical right accepts the existing democratic order, the extreme right advocates anti-democratic principles and justifies violent means to overthrow it. Populists, an anti-establishment group with similarities to both the radical and extreme right, pits “the people” against a “corrupt elite.” Despite differences in various aspects, these parties share common characteristics of far-right ideology, which generally include authoritarianism, nationalism, anti-democracy, racism, and xenophobia. Central to their ideology is authoritarianism (advocating for a strong state governed by law and order), nationalism or nativism (emphasizing the nation-state and the exclusion of ethnic outsiders), and opposition to liberal democracy (rejecting individualism, universalism, and pluralism as threats to the nation-state).
From Fringe to Mainstream: The Waves of Far Right
The rise of these parties in European politics is new but rather part of a long ideological trajectory. Political scientist Klaus von Beyme identified three waves of right-wing extremism in Europe after World War II, with Cass Mudde later identifying a fourth. The first wave, from 1945-55, consisted of electorally weak neo-fascist groups, remnants of the fascist era that could not gain widespread support. The second wave, from 1955-80, saw the emergence of “flash parties” that gained significant votes but gradually faded from the political scene. In the third wave, from 1980-2000, far-right parties began entering parliaments in several European countries, securing notable electoral support. The current fourth wave, beginning around 2010, has seen far-right parties grow significantly and move into the political mainstream across Europe. These parties now garner between 15% of the vote in Western and Northern Europe and up to 50% in parts of Eastern Europe. In this year’s EU parliamentary elections, far-right parties won 19% of the total vote across the EU, securing 187 parliamentary seats, reflecting their continued success.
Many factors are believed to have contributed to Europe’s rise of the far right. Economic stagnation and immigration during the 2000s are often cited as significant driving forces behind this surge. The loss of jobs diminished wealth, and growing insecurity are thought to have fuelled anger among Europeans, leading to radicalisation and dissatisfaction with mainstream parties, resulting in what some describe as protest votes.
Some analysts interpret the rise of the far right through the lens of cultural backlash theory, suggesting that segments of society, alienated by rapid cultural changes, feel weakened and disempowered, prompting them to defend traditional social and moral values. Others highlight the refugee crisis as a major factor in support for radical parties, as the large influx of foreigners is perceived by many as a threat to the European lifestyle and culture.
While these factors are undeniably valid and have indeed generated concerns that spark intense debates, they cannot be seen as the sole driving force behind radicalism. Instead, they serve as justifiable arguments that radical groups use to advance their cause. As evident in their rhetoric, these groups’ underlying motivation revolves around identity issues tied to nationalist sentiments. Thus, what is now described as the rise of the far right should be viewed as a resurgence of nationalism in Europe.
Far Right: Awakening of Nationalism
Different factors contribute to the rise of nationalism in both Western and Eastern Europe, largely stemming from the EU itself and the political and cultural backgrounds of its member states. In their book In the Light that Failed: A Reckoning, Krastev and Holmes describe nationalism as a reaction against the perceived failure of liberal democracy and its central body, the EU, outlining the processes that have fuelled nationalist sentiments across Europe.
The authors argue that the rapid imposition of liberalism and EU integration policies in Eastern European nations, which lacked a long tradition of democracy and liberalism, threatened traditional values and institutions such as religion and national identity—historically cornerstones of these societies. Swift Westernisation, with its emphasis on liberal principles like secularism, individualism, and pluralism, created friction with certain segments of society, leading to disillusionment with liberalism and a stronger voice against its associated policies and values. These rapid socio-political changes resulted in heightened nationalist sentiments and growing support for far-right groups that rejected these changes and advocated for preserving national culture, traditions, and sovereignty.
While nationalism was rising globally, Western Europe, in contrast, had long experienced a reverse trend following World War II, appearing to lose ground in the face of rising nationalistic sentiments elsewhere. However, global trends and shifting political dynamics in neighbouring regions eventually started influencing Western European countries.
According to Krastev and Holmes, in Western Europe, the rise of nationalism was fuelled by discontent with the EU’s supranational structure, which many saw as a threat to national identity and sovereignty. As the EU’s role expanded beyond its initial technocratic scope into more politically charged areas, its influence over sensitive state powers and the daily lives of individuals sparked concerns about the diminishing national autonomy of member states. Decisions made at the EU level on political, economic, and social issues—decisions that member states were expected to implement—affected millions across Europe and stirred resentment. Many perceived this as a loss of their countries’ authority over internal decision-making, which gave rise to Euroscepticism and a growing demand for national autonomy. It also reinforced national identities in contrast to the thin EU identity. Thus, growing dissatisfaction with the supranational policies of the EU and the imitation of liberal democracy in Eastern Europe provoked a national backlash and led to the rise of far-right nationalist forces, the authors conclude. The economic and refugee crises in Europe during the 2000s further reinforced nationalist feelings, eventually translating into significant electoral gains for far-right groups that exploited these themes to rally support.
Conclusion
The most recent EU parliamentary and national elections in Europe saw a significant rise in far-right parties across the continent. The ascendance of these forces into power and their prominence on the central stage of EU politics raise concerns, as they largely contradict the EU’s established political structure and value system. United by themes of national identity and sovereignty, these conservative forces oppose the liberal democratic values and policies that have traditionally dominated European politics.
They exploit the challenges facing the established liberal order, including economic and immigration issues, as well as the supranational nature of the EU, and advocate for stronger sovereign nation-states and the preservation of national identities. In that sense, what is often described as far-right ideology is, in fact, a resurgence of nationalism in Europe. These groups, using nationalist rhetoric to rally support around the concepts of identity and autonomy, generally position nationalism in opposition to the liberal democratic system of the EU and promote alternative policies to address problems they perceive as rooted in the established system’s failures.
Thus, the rise of nationalism in the EU poses considerable risks and challenges for the union. These forces could potentially paralyse the functioning of the EU, as they fundamentally oppose many of its core policies, including deeper integration of the union, immigration management, and green and climate initiatives. In the long term, the resurgence of nationalist forces risks broader authoritarianism in Europe. Research shows how nationalist and autocratic leaders use democratic procedures to erode democratic norms and institutions, leading to democratic backsliding, as seen in countries like Hungary, Poland, and Turkey, and potentially in other nations as well.